Eli West
Prof. Westblade
18th Century
Theology
October 5, 2015
The 1750Õs:
Events and Thoughts that Influenced Puritan New England
The
1750Õs posed many dangers for the Puritan communities of colonial New England. American
colonists born at the beginning of this decade grew up in a community
constantly on the verge of attack from foreign powers and native savages.
Moreover, even beyond physical dangers, there were powerful forces among the European
intellectuals who were casting doubt on the most essential doctrines of
Christian faith. Despite these threats, however, the health and faith of New
England churches, including the congregation of Jonathan Edwards—the most
famous theologian of the decade—remained remarkably stable. In effort to
provide context to this period of American Puritanism, this paper will survey
the highlights the French & Indian War—by far the most important
political event of the decade—as also note the periodÕs most influential
thinkers and theologians.
The French and Indian War dominated the news and politics
of New England in the 1750Õs. Battles first sparked between French and British
colonists over coveted fur trading lands of the
Ohio River Valley, but their fighting erupted soon after into a global conflict
known in Europe as the Seven YearsÕ War. On American shores, the contest was
mostly between British soldiers sent to protect the royal colonies and French
forces who allied with Indian tribes angry at the increasingly westward
expansion of European colonists.[1]
The
long fight began after the British built a fort at the junction of the
Monongahela and Allegheny Rivers in effort to forestall French settlement in
the region. The French responded by capturing the fort and renaming it Fort
Duquesne in August of 1753. Under the leadership of George Washington, British
forces attempted to retake the fort but were devastatingly defeated on July 4,
1754. British loses continued through 1757. FranceÕs domination over the
American continent was seemed all to certain. The tide turned however in 1758
as British forces outwitted French troops in capturing Nova Scotia. By 1761,
France had lost control over its Canadian and American forts.[2]
Fighting
still dragged on until 1763 when France, Spain, and Great Britain signed the
Peace of Paris. France retained only her main West Indian islands, and the tiny
fishing islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon near Newfoundland. On the other
hand, Britain secured all of Canada, all the area east of the Mississippi, and
the island of Grenada in the West Indies. It also retrieved Florida from Spain.
In short, the outcome of the war left Britain was sure master of the colonial
empire.[3]
Although the war came with great costs, its effect on New England Puritans
were mostly indirect and therefore not as detrimental to daily life like later
American conflicts would be. Few colonists were forced to enlist or give over
their fortunes to fund the British military.[4]
Nevertheless, the worry over Indian raids was very real. For instance, during
the winters of 1756-1757, Jonathan EdwardsÕ congregation at Stockbridge was so
sure their vulnerability would fall prey to the Indians that they sent petitions
to the Massachusetts General Court begging for troop protection. Edwards
himself was not so troubled. His long-range optimism stemmed from his
eschatological beliefs, which foresaw the defeat of the anti-Christ and the Roman
Catholic Church. Any negative effects from the war on the New England church
was undoubtedly judgment from God because of their sin, but Edwards believed
that God would ultimately grant them victory over the French Papists. [5] His
optimism proved right.
Despite
the on-going war, the 1750Õs was rich with intellectual scholarship and
religious expression. During this period, Enlightenment philosophy especially
dominated the works of secular thinkers such as Voltaire and David Hume, while
many Protestant theologians identified with the pietistic ministries of John
Wesley and George Whitefield.
Building
off the foundation left by Isaac Newton in the early stages of the eighteenth
century, Enlightenment thinkers promoted a materialistic philosophy that tried to
explain everything in the universe in terms of matter and motion. Gradually,
their thoughts developed into a body of religious beliefs known as Deism or
Natural Religion. Deists of the 1750Õs based their beliefs on reason and those
doctrines that are essentially common to all the religions of mankind. These
principles included an acknowledgment of GodÕs existence, GodÕs demand for the
righteous living of men, and GodsÕ rewards and punishes for men in a life after
death. Such naturalistic philosophers prized what was natural over
supernatural, and what was known by reason rather than by revelation. Not
surprisingly, the works of such skeptical thinkers cast seeds of Atheism that
were already germinating in the 1750Õs. By the end of the century, there was a
strong and unashamedly outspoken current of Atheism among intellectuals.[6]
The
1750Õs marked an especially significant time for Enlightenment thought as
Frenchman Denis Diderot published seventeen large volumes within 1751-1765 in
his work the Encyclopedia. Also known
as the ÒBible of the Enlightenment,Ó the Encyclopedia
featured works from virtually every major Enlightenment thinker including
David Hume, Voltaire, and Rousseau. DiderotÕs compilation dramatically
influenced political, social, and philosophical thought in eighteenth century
and prepared ground for later the French Revolution. Throughout the work, its skeptical
tone argued that man could not arrive at any truth about God, the soul,
after-life, or anything outside of his own experience. It cast doubt on all
matters of religious belief, especially calling into question the divine
inspiration and historical accuracy of the Bible.[7]
Nevertheless,
while most of the advanced thinkers of the 1750Õs identified with naturalistic
philosophy, Deism made little headway among the lower and middle classes of the
Western world—especially within Protestant communities. On the contrary,
this decade was in the middle of another philosophic phenomenon known as Pietism.
This form of religious expression dominated the rural masses who largely
ignored the rationalism of the intellectuals and instead stressed manÕs direct
relationship to God.[8]
Major
theologians of the Pietism movement during the eighteenth century stemmed
largely from Anglican origins including John Wesley, Charles Wesley, and George
Whitefield. Before the eighteenth century, Pietism was mainly confided to the
Lutheran Church, while Anglican clergy were often worldly, sometimes
rationalistic, and had little influence over the religious practice of the
masses. John Wesley, an evangelical preacher, writer, and founder of Methodism
changed that stereotype. Recognizing the need reach the masses, Wesley traveled
5,000 miles a year and preached some 40,000 sermons all over Europe. At the
heart of WesleyÕs message was that a Christian was anyone who ÒacceptedÓ Christ
and lived methodically according to ÒChristian principles.[9]Ó His brother Charles,
composer of wrote over 6,500 hymns, agreed, preaching that measure of oneÕs
life is by his faith and sober conduct, not by ritualistic church attendance.[10] Their ideas quickly
spread across Europe and were furthered in America by the itinerant preaching
ministry of George Whitefield. Whitefield met the WesleyÕs at Oxford, and after
being ordained in the Anglican Church made seven voyages across the Atlantic.
He preached over 18,000 sermons while traveling the American colonies. He was
unique and controversial to many as he encouraged men to come to righteousness
by their individual decision and forsake the ritualism of mainstream
Christianity.[11]
Although
he was outside of the Church of England, Jonathan Edwards approved of these
movements of pietism. His support for such thinking shows in some his most
important works that he published during this last decade of his life including
Religious Affections (1750), Freedom of the Will (1754) The End for Which god Created (1756), The Nature of True Virtue (1756), and Original Sin (1758).[12]
Bibliography
Byers, Paula K., ed. Encyclopedia
of World Biography. 2nd ed. Detroit, MI: Gale
Research, 1998.
Grun, Bernard. The Timetables of History. 4th
Rev. ed. New York, NY: Touchstone, 2005.
Hayes, Carlton,
Marshall Baldwin, and Charles Cole. History of Western Civilization. New York,
NY: Macmillian Company, 1962.
Marsden, George. Jonathan Edwards: A Life. Harrisonburg,
VA: R. R. Donnelley and Sons,
2003.
Williams, Neville. 1492-1775: The Expanding World. Vol. 2 of Chronology of World
History. Santa
Barbara, CA: Helicon Publishing, 1999.
[1]Carlton Hayes, History of Western Civilization. (New York, NY: Macmillian
Company, 1962), 469-470.
[2] Ibid., 471-472.
[3] Ibid., 474.
[4] Ibid., 475.
[5] George Marsden, Jonathan Edwards: A Life. (Harrisonburg, VA: R. R. Donnelley and
Sons,
2003), 414-426.
[6] Carlton Hayes, History of Western Civilization. (New York, NY: Macmillian Company, 1962), 485-486.
[7] Neville Williams, 1492-1775: The Expanding World. Vol. 2 of
Chronology of World History.
(Santa Barbara, CA: Helicon Publishing, 1999), 315.
[8] Carlton Hayes, History of Western Civilization. (New York, NY: Macmillian Company, 1962), 487-489.
[9] Paula Byers ed. Encyclopedia of World Biography.
2nd ed. Vol. 16 (Detroit, MI: Gale Research, 1998), 209-210.
[10] Ibid., 208-209.
[11] Ibid., 241-242.
[12] George Marsden, Jonathan Edwards: A Life. (Harrisonburg, VA: R. R. Donnelley and
Sons,
2003), xiv-xv.